Primitive age

The Xia Dynasty (late 22th century BC- early 16th century BC)

It has been related that in 22th century BC, the Xia Dynasty, first in China's history, was established by Yu. Qi, son of Yu, succeeded his father and assumed power. This hereditary succession replaced the practice of abdication and passing on power in accordance with public consensus, marking the end of the primitive society.
The practice of slavery emerged in the Xia Dynasty. The country was divided into nine administrative regions. Laws were promulgated, and armed forces and courts were institutionalized. Workmen in Xia had grasped the techniques of casting bronze vessels. Findings at the Erlitou cultural relic site in Henan, central China, prove the existence of bone instrument workshops and pottery kilns. Wine had been brewed in Xia - this fact serves as further evidence that manufacturing and agriculture industries had developed to some extent.
The Xia Dynasty, lasting more than 400 years, saw 14 generations of rulers and the reigns of 17 kings. History records that the 17th and last king of Xia, by the name of Jie, was a notorious despot.

The Shang Dynasty (16th century BC-11th century BC)

The tribe, led by their leader Tang, dethroned Jie and his regime and established the Shang Dynasty. During the reign of Pan Geng, Shang moved its capital to Yin (today's Anyang in Henan Province). After settling in at Yin, the Shang Dynasty experienced a period of peace and prosperity, representing the first economic and cultural boom in China's history.
The Shang Dynasty led the world in its time in such areas as metallurgy, agriculture and animal husbandry. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone and ceramic artifacts have been obtained; the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization. The development of its system of barter and commerce was one of the most advanced in the world. The many copper coins found in Yin ruins were probably the earliest metal currencies in the world. The creation of the oracle bone inscriptions was a great contribution of the Shang Dynasty. The people of Shang designed the Celestial Stems and Territorial Branches to register the days and years. In this calendar system, each year has twelve months, and the leap year thirteen.
There were all together thirty kings in the reign of the Shang Dynasty.

The Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC-771 BC)

King Wen and King Wu of Zhou jointly established the Western Zhou. The system of slavery developed to a higher level in this period. A complete and intricate bureaucratic system was devised and implemented. Metallurgy and agriculture advanced, and silk spinning and dying techniques were ahead of their time.
At the time, the country bristled with small kingdoms and fiefs. Although the king of Zhou was honored as the Common Ruler, his authority extended to no more than the small, central patch of land under his direct rule. That piece of land was named the Central Kingdom, for it was the central capital and the symbol of the top authority. Since land and related titles were the object of much contention among the smaller leaders, the Central Kingdom gradually became the name of the country.
The Western Zhou later moved its capital to Luoyi (to the west of today's Luoyang, Henan Province). Named the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770BC-256BC) by historians, it consisted of the Spring and Autumn Period (770BC-476BC) and the Warring States Period (475BC-221BC).

The Spring and Autumn Period (770BC-476BC) & The Warring States Period (475BC-221BC)

During two periods, farming was the mainstay of the economy of central China. Metallurgy was developed to meet the demands of supplying farming tools and weapons. Toward the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, a smelting technique was invented for making pig iron.
A myriad of small fiefdoms and principalities existed in the two periods, giving to continued conflicts. The two periods were also one of the periods in the Chinese history in which culture and ideology were most liberal and active. Debate was lively over various questions, schools of thought, methodologies and strategies. The Confucianism of Kong Zi (Confucius), the Daoism of Lao Zi, the Universal Love of Mo Zi, or the Legalism of Hanfei Zi, all later became the principal sources of the Chinese culture. Philosophy, especially the ideas concerning society and virtues, constituted the theoretical foundation for the ruling classes' reign and administration. The hundred schools of thought contending with one another during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods had explored and established the theoretical bases.

The Qin Dynasty (221 BC-206 BC)

Yingzheng, king of Qin, one of seven states in the Warring States period, was a man of high political caliber, and a military strategist. He was determined to implement reforms and to build the military power of his country. In 221 BC, he succeeded in conquering the other six states and uniting central China. It started the legally constituted authority of feudalism in China, which lasted for the next 2,100 years.
Yingzheng of Qin was the first to set a goal of unification and the first one to accomplish it. Yingzheng rationalized the system of Chinese characters and weights and measures, and built roads and canals. He constructed the Great Wall. The name "Qin ren", or "citizens of Qin", was known throughout the neighboring regions. In some countries, people still call the Chinese "Qin ren" (actually, the name "China" may have been derived from "Qin"). Although the Qin Dynasty lasted for only a short time and was overthrown by the peasant uprising led by Cheng Sheng and Wu Guang, it laid the foundation of prosperity for the Han Dynasty.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD)

The Han Dynasty is historically divided into the Western Han (206 BC-8 AD) and Eastern Han (25 AD-220 AD) Dynasties. The former ending in a farmer's rebellion, the authority of Western Han was carried on by Liu Xiu, one of the kinsmen of the Han royal family. His army defeated all the other warlords and rebuilt the Han dministration in Luoyang, beginning the Eastern Han Dynasty.
Because the Han Dynasty was built upon the ashes of the Qin, overthrown in the peasant rebellion, the early rulers implemented no harsh policies. Thus the social economic situation began to recover and progress into a healthy cycle.
Liu Che (Emperor Wu ,the fifth emperor of the Dynasty) dispatched Zhang Qian as his emissary to Central Asia in order to built good relationships with the nomads.The Silk Road, stretching more than 7000 kilometers, brought China and Europe together.
The Western Han Dynasty saw the birth of Sima Qian, a great historian, man of letters and thinker. He created the impressive Shi Ji, or Historical Records, presented as a series of biographies. Toward the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun improved paper-making methods, and Zhang Heng invented a mobile celestial globe and an instrument to observe earthquakes. Doctors such as Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo took the science of medicine to new heights and made it a respectable discipline.
In the period of Han dynasty, the contact with different groups in the Western Regions and with minority ethnic groups in the southwest was ongoing. The main body of the Chinese nation, the Han, was formed.

The Wei and Jin Periods & The Northern and Southern Dynasties (220 AD-581 AD)

China was in the throes of war during the the Wei, Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties. But many achievements were made in the realms of culture and science.
The mathematician Zhu Chongzhi's calculation of Pi, was accurate to seven decimal places. Other important scientific works of that time were Commentary of the Waterways Classics by the geographer Li Daoyuan, and Important Arts for People's Welfare by the agricultural scientist Jia Sixie.
In the realms of art and literature, the poems and prose of Zuo Si and the calligraphy of Wang Xizhi were innovative and imaginative. The musical work, Guang Ling Verse, by Ji Kang, has been passed down. The painter, Gu Kaizhi, is even today praised for his works. Liu Xie wrote his masterpiece Carving a Dragon at the Core of Literature and Zhong Rong created his Critique of Poetry, the earliest systematic treatise on the "inherent law" of literature and poetry. Cao Cao and his sons, Cao Pi and Cao Zhi are regarded as the ever-brightly shining stars of Chinese literature, with their masterpieces.
The Wei, Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties together constituted a period of ethnic integration. Different ethnic groups in the north - the Xianbei, Qiang, Jie and Di migrated inland into the Yellow River Valley, settling with the Han, and were gradually becoming fused into the Han ethnic group.

The Sui Dynasty (581 AD-618 AD)

In 581 AD, Yang Jian, a great general of the Northern Zhou Kingdom, forced the ruler to abdicate, and assumed power.He proclaimed himself. Yang Jian implemented a series of reforms. As a result, the Sui Dynasty became wealthy and its people prospered. However, the second son of Yang Jian murdered his father and his elder brother, and ascended to the throne. He was the notorious Emperor Yang of Sui, famous even today for his debauchery and despotism. During his reign, the powerful Sui Dynasty met its demise and was finished. Only the Grand Canal, excavated in his reign, is left as a positive accomplishment: the canal is still functioning today.

The Tang Dynasty (618 AD-907 AD)

The Tang Dynasty represented the splendor and brilliance of feudal China, and was the most open and advanced country in the world in its time.
Commerce extended to regions in the Pacific Ocean, and as far as the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans. Trade was active also between Tang and East Asian, West Asia, and North Africa. Delegations from religious bodies, scholars and students traveled thousands of miles to visit China. Japan dispatched more than ten delegations to China to reside and study in Chang'an. Xuanzuang traveled to India and brought back Buddhist scriptures to China. Christianity and Islam were introduced at about the same time. Literature in the Tang Dynasty was even more brilliant. The best among the poets were the immortal poet Li Bai and the "poet among poets" Du Fu. Followers such asBai Juyi, Han Yu, Meng Jiao, Li He, Du Mu and Li Shangyin were all great poets, each with their own individual characteristics.
The Tang Dynasty marked the apogee of the country's ancient history: many different ethnic groups lived together harmoniously. Princess Wencheng married Songtsam Gambo, king of Tubo (ancient name for Tibet), and this effected close relations between the Tibetan regime and the Tang Dynasty.

The Five Dynasties and Ten States Period (907 AD-979 AD)

Chinese civilization ebbed after the golden ages of the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The 53 years after the dethronement of the last emperor of the Tang Dynasty was called the Five Dynasties and Ten States Period (907-979 AD). States and kingdoms were jousting during this period; conflicts and wars never ended. South China was relatively peaceful at this time, and agricultural production began to catch up with the north.

The Song Dynasty (960 AD-1279 AD)

When Zhao Kuangyin established the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), he chose Bianjing (modern-day Kaifeng) as his capital. This period is generally known as the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD). The rulers were later forced to move to Lin'an (modern-day Hangzhou) and that became the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279 AD). The Song Dynasty endured for 320 years and saw the reign of 18 emperors. The strength of the state was in decline and its territory kept on shrinking. The Song Dynasty continually engaged itself in war with the states of the northern ethnic minorities, such as the Liao, the Jin and the Xixia.
Despite this, the Song Dynasty played an essential role in the evolution of Chinese culture. Li Xue, the Confucian school of idealist philosophy, became prominent and dominated mainstream ideology. Chinese philosophy crystallized, embodying Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The Northern Song Dynasty boasted a relatively complete civil administration system.It served as a precursor of the civil service system in quite a few countries. Shen Kuo, a great scientist, wrote his masterpiece on science and technology, Sketchbook of Dream Brook. In the field of literature, Su Dongpo, Li Qingzhao, Xin Qiji and Lu You were all great poets of the Song Dynasty. Ancient China's four great inventions, the compass, gunpowder,papermakingand printing, all became widely utilized.
During the Song Dynasty, the Han constantly waged war with the Qidan and N Zhen clans in the north, but finally, both became members of the larger family of ethnic groups.

The Yuan Dynasty (1206 AD-1368 AD)

While the Southern Song Dynasty and the Jin faced each other in a stalemate, the northern Mongol nomadic tribes led by Timujin (1167-1227) came to the fore. He unified the Mongols and proclaimed himself Genghis Khan. In 1271 AD, Kublai Khan established his empire, Da Yuan, in central China and based his court in today's Beijing; he named it "Da Du", or "the Great Capital". The Yuan Dynasty became the first in China's history to establish nationwide rule by a single ethnic minority.
Sino-foreign exchanges had reached a high point in the history of China by then. Trade links were established with countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. An Italian, Marco Polo, lived for 17 years in the territories of the Yuan Dynasty when the empire was in its prime. Upon returning to his home country, he wrote The Travels of Marco Polo. The authorities of the Yuan Dynasty adopted an open policy toward religious issues. All religions flourished, notably Islam. In the field of literature, dramatists such as Guan Hanqing, Wang Shipu, Bai Pu and Ma Zhiyuan raised the Chinese art of drama to a higher level of maturity.
The first achievement of the Yuan Dynasty was ending the disunity and fractionalization of China that characterized the 370 years after the Tang Dynasty. Different ethnic groups administering separate domains were finally replaced by a state regime. As a result, the domain of the Yuan Dynasty was larger than that of any of the preceding dynasties. At the same time, the Yuan Dynasty built a multi-ethnic country.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 AD-1644 AD)

The Ming Dynasty began in 1368 AD, locating its administrative center in Ying Tian Fu (modern-day Nanjing.) In the early years of the Dynasty, China still led the world in development and the economy continued to progress. Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, adopted a series of policies that were aimed at rejuvenating production, and returning the people to their normal lives.
Zhu Di (Ming Chengzhu, also known as Emperor Yong Le) dispatched Zheng He (1371-1435) on voyages to the Western Seas. He authorized the compilation of Yong Le Da Dian, or Great Encyclopedia of Yong Le. It was the earliest and biggest encyclopedia of its time in China and in the world.
From the mid-Ming Dynasty China's economy was free to flourish. Townships and villages shot up in southeast China, boasting new kinds of handicrafts and commercial activities. Some farmers abandoned the land and became merchants and traders, and others, without any capital, became craftsmen. However, pirates from Japan, Holland, Spain and Portugal were attacking seaside villages. Inland, the Nu Zhen tribe in northeastern was catching up in strength and power and posed an increasingly grave threat to the Ming regime.
In 1644, Li Zicheng led his followers in a peasant uprising. Emperor Chongzhen hanged himself on Mount Mei in Beijing. His death marked the end of the Ming Dynasty. However, Li failed to establish his own regime. A Manchu emperor who came to throne and ended the Ming Dynasty.

The Qing Dynasty (1616 AD-1911 AD)

The first several emperors of the Qing Dynasty, however, adopted a receptive attitude toward cultural issues. They were able to see beyond their own ethnic boundaries, and encouraged the absorption of advanced techniques and knowledge. The knowledge of physics, astronomy, mathematics and chemistry brought by the missionaries were eagerly received, and applied by the Chinese court. The early Manchu rulers were farsighted enough to implement a series of policies that bolstered social and economic rejuvenation. But soon the feudal rulers launched the close-door policy. A nation-wide closed-door policy imposed by the authorities served as a barrier, preventing communication with the outside world. China's development lagged and slowed.
The Opium War, which broke out in 1840, changed the course of the history of the country. China gradually slipped into a semi-colonial state and a nearly- subjugated society. Some of the more enlightened intellectuals started to seek the best way out for the country. Led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, the reformists plotted to stage a reform movement aimed at adopting a new legal system and pursuing economic growth and strength.
The process of integrating the nation was also very brisk during Ming and Qing Dynasties. Under the reign of Emperor Kangxi, a multi-ethnic and unified domain was firmly established, with the different ethnic groups of the Chinese nation living together harmoniously.

History of Modern China

During the past century, China experienced three great transformations: the first was the Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the feudal monarchy which had lasted thousands of years; the second was the founding of the People's Republic of China, which transformed China into a socialist country; the third was the Opening and Reform, during which China entered the period of socialist modernization. Three great figures were behind these changes: Sun Yat-Sen, Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. Their unrelenting spirit and distinguished achievements in leading the Chinese people searching for the road to strength and prosperity will go down in history forever.